THE BIBLE AND ALCOHOL: MODERATION OR ABSTINENCE? ================================================ Samuele Bacchiocchi, Ph. D., Professor of Theology and Church History, Andrews University Note: This study on the Biblical teaching on the use of alcoholic beverages is a brief summary of my book WINE IN THE BIBLE (320 pages) which is also available in a abridged version of 64 pages. Feel free to contact me if you are interested in a copy. My e-mail address is samuele@andrews.edu The use of alcoholic beverages has become America's number-one public enemy, costing over $117 billion a year and claiming at least 100,000 American lives per year, 25 times as many as all illegal drugs combined.1 The real human cost of alcohol transcends any statistical estimate of deaths, disabilities or dollar figures. A 1987 Gallup Poll indicates that one family out of four is troubled by alcohol.2 This means that more than 61 million Americans are affected by some alcohol-related problems such as retarded children, divorces, violence in the home, various forms of crimes, sickness and death. Christian churches bear considerable responsibility for the alcohol epidemic raging in America today, because through their beliefs, teachings and preaching they are able to influence the moral values and practices of society more than any other institution. What pastors preach from their pulpits on the subject of drinking determines to a large extent the stand Christians take toward alcoholic beverages. A majority of the 100 million drinkers in America today are churchgoers who have been taught that the Bible sanctions a moderate use of alcoholic beverages. Moderate drinking has led over 18 million Americans to become immoderate drinkers, because alcohol is a habit-forming narcotic weakening one's capacity for self-control. Abandonment of Abstinence. Since the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 most evangelical churches have gradually abandoned their stand for total abstinence, adopting instead a moderationist position toward alcohol use. A major factor which has contributed to this trend has been a weakening of the conviction that total abstinence is a clear Biblical and moral principle to be respected like other God-given principles. Billy Graham expressed this view when he said: "I do not believe that the Bible teaches teetotalism . . . Jesus drank wine. Jesus turned water into wine at a wedding feast. That wasn't grape juice as some of them try to claim."3 No longer having a compelling Biblical and moral conviction to remain or become abstinent, more and more Christian have given in to the social pressure of drinking alcohol. The extent of the drinking problem has been brought home to me during my recent lecture tours across North America and overseas. Pastors and church members have frequently asked me to explain certain Bible texts used by members of their congregation to justify their moderate drinking of alcoholic beverages. Confronted with frequent pleas for help, I felt that in good conscience I could no longer ignore the problem. Thus, I decided to devote a leave-of-absence from my teaching at Andrews University to an in-depth study of what the Bible has to say on the use of alcoholic beverages. The results of this research has been published in Wine in the Bible: A Biblical Study on the Use of Alcoholic Beverages (300 pages, 1989). The book has already been favorably reviewed by over one hundred scholars and church leaders of different denominations. This article represents a nutshell summary of the highlights of this research. Interested readers are encouraged to read the book for a fuller treatment of the subject. An Apparent Contradiction. As I began reading what Scripture teaches about the use of wine, it soon became evident that the Bible speaks on this subject in an apparent contradictory way. On the one hand, the Bible unreservedly disapproves of use of wine (Lev 10:8-11; Judg 13:3, 4; Prov 31:4, 5; 23:31; 20:1; Hab 2:5; Eph 5:18; 1 Tim 3:2, 3), while on the other hand it wholeheartedly approves of its use as a divine blessing for people to enjoy (Gen 27:28; 49:10-12; Ps 104:14, 15; Is 55:1; Amos 9:13; John 2:10, 11). Advocates of moderation attempt to resolve this apparent contradiction by arguing that Scripture condemns the immoderate use of alcoholic beverages and commends their moderate use. This belief is based on the assumption that the Bible knows only of fermented wine ("one wine theory") which it considers as a divine blessing when used with moderation. Consequently any condemnation of wine in the Bible refers not to the kind of wine (alcoholic), but to the amount consumed. A major weakness of this view is that Scripture both condemns and commends wine itself, irrespective of the quantity used. Wine is denounced as "treacherous" (Hab 2:5) and as "a mocker" (Prov 20:1) that "bites like a serpent and stings like an adder" (Prov 23:32). To avoid the shame and suffering caused by drinking fermented wine, Scripture admonishes not moderation but total abstinence: "Do not look at wine" (Prov 23:31). The reason for this absolute prohibition is no doubt the fact that gazing at something attractive is the first step toward partaking it. Others try to resolve the apparent contradiction between the Biblical approval and disapproval of wine by arguing that the positive references represent a divine concession to human weakness rather than a divine approval. A main problem with this interpretation is that some passages speak of "wine," not as a divine concession but as a divine blessing for the people to enjoy. For example, the Psalmist says that God gives "wine to gladden the heart of man, oil to make his face shine, and bread to strengthen man's heart"(Ps104:14,15). Here "wine" is joined together with food and oil as a basic divine blessing which enjoys God's approval. The Meaning of "Wine" The appararent contradiction between the Biblical disapproval and approval of wine is dictated by the assumption that the Hebrew and Greek words for wine (yayin and oinos) always mean "fermented wine." Is this assumption correct? To find an answer to this question I investigated the Biblical and historical usage of the term "wine," beginning from the English wine, and then proceeding backward to the Latin vinum, the Greek oinos and finally the Hebrew yayin. The result of the survey is abundantly clear: these four related words have been used historically to refer to the juice of the grape, whether fermented or unfermented.4 Only few examples can be cited in this brief article. The New Webster Encyclopedic Dictionary of the English Language (1971) defines "must" as "Wine or juice pressed from the grapes but not fermented." In this definition "wine" is clearly used to denote unfermented grape juice. The Meaning of the Greek Oinos. Examples of the dual usage oinos abound in secular Greek. In his book Metereologica, Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) speaks of unfermented grape juice (glukus), saying: "though called wine [oinos], it has not the effect of wine, for it does not taste like wine and does not intoxicate like ordinary wine."5 In this text Aristotle explicitly informs us that unfermented grape juice was called "oinos-wine," though it did not have the taste or the intoxicating effect of ordinary wine.6 In the Septuagint, an intertestamental Greek translation of the Old Testament, "the Hebrew word for grape-juice, tirosh," as Ernest Gordon points out, " is translated at least 33 times by the Greek word oinos, wine, and the adjective 'new' is not present. Oinos without qualification, then, can easily mean unfermented wine in the New Testament."7 A possible use of oinos in the New Testament to denote unfermented wine, is found in Matthew 9:17 where Jesus says that "new wine is put into fresh wineskins." In view of the fact that no fresh wineskins can resist the pressure caused by fermenting new wine, it is reasonable to assume that the "new wine" spoken of by Jesus was wine fresh from the press which had been strained and possibly boiled, and then placed immediately into fresh wineskins to insure the absence of fermentation-causing substances. Ancient authors attest to this practice. The Meaning of the Hebrew Yayin. Like in Greek so in Hebrew the term for "wine" (yayin) was used to refer to either fermented or unfermented wine. The Jewish Encyclopedia explains that "Fresh wine before fermenting was called 'yayin mi-gat' (wine of the vat; Sanh 70a)."8 The Halakot Gedalot, which is the earliest Jewish compendium of the Talmud, says: "One may press out a cluster of grapes and pronounce the Kiddush over the juice, since the juice of the grape is considered wine [yayin] in connection with the laws of the Nazirite."9 The use of yayin in the Old Testament to denote unfermented grape juice is not always self-evident, because it does not come under condemnation like the fermented yayin. In several passages, however, the context clearly indicates that the word designates unfermented grape juice (Jer 40:10, 12; Neh 13:15; Lam 2:12; Gen 49:11; Songs 1:2, 4; 4:10).10 For example, Isaiah 16:10 speaks God's judgment upon Moab, manifested through the removal of the divine blessing from the vineyard and the grape juice: "And joy and gladness are taken away from the fruitful field; and in the vineyard no songs are sung, no shouts are raised; no treader treads out wine [yayin] in the presses; the vintage shout is hushed" (Is 16:10). The "wine" (yayin) the treaders tread out in the pressing vat, is obviously unfermented grape juice since fermentation is a time-controlled process. The above sampling of Biblical and historical testimonies suffice to show that the Bible knows of both fermented wine, which it disapproves, and unfermented grape juice, which it approves. This conclusion becomes clearer when we examine the reasons for the Biblical disapproval of fermented wine and approval of unfermented grape juice. Biblical Approval and Disapproval of "Wine" Biblical Approval of Unfermented Wine. The vineyard, with its products of grape and wine, was vital in Biblical economy and theology. A look at a concordance suffices to recognize this fact. The word "wine-yayin," occurs141 times in the Old Testament and oinos 30 times in the New Testament. In several instances the context indicates that the positive references to "wine" have to do with unfermented and unintoxicating grape juice. Because of its natural and nourishing properties, grape juice was fittingly used to represent the divine blessing of material prosperity (Gen 27:28; 49:10-11; Deut 33:28), the blessing of the messianic age (Joel 2:18-19; Jer 31:10-12; Amos 9:13, 14), the free offer of God's saving grace (Is 55:1), the wholesome joy God offers to His people (Ps 104:14-15; 4:7), and the acknowledgment of God through the use of grape juice as tithe, offerings and libations (Num 18:12; Deut 14:23; Ex 29:40; Lev 23:13). "Wine" as unfermented grape juice is approved in the Scripture because it provides us with a wholesome and delightful beverage to gladden our hearts without making us "merry." This thought is expressed in Psalm 104:14-15: "Thou dost cause the grass to grow for the cattle, and plants for man to cultivate, that he may bring forth food from the earth, and wine [yayin] to gladden the heart of man, oil to make his face shine, and bread to strengthen man's heart.11 In this song of thanksgiving the Psalmist enumerates God's bountiful provisions for the needs of His creatures. He refers to the believing that the Bible teaches moderation in the use of alcoholic beverages, rather than abstinence from them. Let us examine some of the apostolic admonistions to abstinence. 1 Thessalonians 5:6-8. In his letter to the Thessalonians Paul admonishes the believers to "be sober" in view of Christ's sudden and unexpected coming, saying: "So then let us not sleep, as others do, but let us keep awake and be sober [nephomen]. For those who sleep sleep at night, and those who get drunk are drunk at night. But, since we belong to the day, let us be sober [nephomen], and put on the breastplate of faith and love, and for a helmet the hope of salvation" (1 Thess 5:6-8). This passage consists of a number of contrasting parallels: light and darkness, day and night, waking and sleeping, to be sober and to be drunk. In light of the contrasts between the sons of the day who are sober and those of the night who are drunk, it is evident that the exhortation to "be sober" means not merely to be mentally vigilant but primarily to be physically abstinent. This conclusion is supported by the connection between sobriety and wakefulness: "Let us keep awake and be sober" (v. 6). The first verb, gregoromen, refers to mental watchfulness and the second, nephomen, to physical abstinence. Otherwise it would be a needless repetition (tautology): "Let us keep awake and be awake." It is evident that Paul connects mental watchfulness with physical abstinence, because the two go together. Mental vigilance in the New Testament is often connected, as we shall see, with physical abstinence. This will become clearer as we consider the other passages in question. 1 Peter 1:13. The admonition to physical abstinence, expressed through the verb nepho, occurs again three times in the first epistle of Peter (1:13; 4:7; 5:8). It is noteworthy that in all the three texts, Peter's exhortation to abstinence is given in the context of readiness for the imminent return of Christ. This implies that Peter, like Paul, grounds his call to a life of abstinence and holiness in the certainty and imminence of Christ's return. The first usage of nepho by Peter occurs in 1 Peter 1:13: "Therefore gird up your minds, be sober [nephontes], set your hope fully upon the grace that is coming to you at the revelation of Jesus Christ." Here Peter, like Paul, correlates mental vigilance ("gird up your minds") with physical abstinence ("be sober"). The admonition to "be abstinent" assumes a radical form in 1 Peter 1:13 because it is followed immediately by the adverb "teleios," which means "perfectly" or "completely." Thus, the correct translation is, "be completely or perfectly abstinent." Most translators, presumably because of their predilection for drinking, have chosen to make teleios a modifier of the following verb elpisate ("set your hope"), thus, rendering it "set your hope fully" (RSV) or "hope to the end" (KJV). But the idiom used elsewhere in the New Testament for "to the end" is not teleios per se, but a compound such as mechri telous or heos telous (Heb 3:6, 14; 1 Cor 1:8; 2 Cor 1:13). It is noteworthy that the Vulgate, Jerome's famous Latin translation which has served as the official Catholic Bible throughout the centuries, translates teleios as a modifier of nephontes, thus, "sobrii perfecte" ("perfectly sober"). In my view Jerome's translation reflects accurately the intent of Peter, who repeats his call to abstinence twice again in his epistle. Thus, the correct translation should be: "Therefore gird up your minds, being wholly abstinent, set your hope upon the grace that is coming to you at the revelation of Jesus Christ." 1 Peter 4:7. The second usage of nepho occurs in 1 Peter 4:7: "The end of all things is at hand; therefore keep sane [sophronesate] and sober [nepsate] for your prayers." Here again Peter exhorts Christians to keep mentally vigilant and physically abstinent. The meaning of nepho as abstinence from wine is suggested also by the context, where Peter contrasts the past life-style of "licentiousness, passions, drunkenness, revels, carousing and lawless idolatry" (1 Pet 4:3) with the new lifestyle of temperance and abstinence. The passage may be paraphrased as follows: "The end of all things is at hand; therefore be sober in mind and abstemious in life in order that you might be able to maintain a healthy devotional life at this critical time." 1 Peter 5:8. The third usage of nepho occurs in 1 Peter 5:8: "Be sober [nepsate], be watchful [gregoresate]. Your adversary the devil prowls around like a roaring lion, seeking some one to devour." Just as in the previous two instances, here also Peter associates mental vigilance with physical abstinence, because the two are mutually dependent. Intoxicating drinks diminish the power of conscience and reason, thus weakening inhibitions to evil-doing. The ultimate result is that the Devil is better able "to devour," literally, "drink down" (katapino) such persons. The contrast between nepsate (from ne piein, "not to drink") and katapiein (from kata piein "to drink down") has been recognized by Adam Clarke, who comments: "It is not every one that he can swallow down. Those who are sober and vigilant are proof against him; these he may not swallow down. Those who are drunk with the cares of this world, and are unwatchful, these he may swallow down. There is a beauty in this verse, and striking apposition between the first and last words, which I think have not been noticed;-Be sober, nepsate, from ne not, and piein, to drink-do not swallow down-and the word katapien, from kata, down, and piein, to drink. If you swallow strong drink down, the devil will swallow you down. Hear this, ye drunkards, topers, tipplers, or by whatsoever name ye are known in society, or among your fellow-sinners, strong drink is not only your way to the devil, but the devil's way into you. Ye are such as the devil particularly may swallow down."53 Summing up, the five usages of nepho, two by Paul (1 Thess 5:6, 8) and three by Peter (1 Peter 1:13; 4:7; 5:8), all show an amazing consistency in urging both mental vigilance and physical abstinence. It is also significant that all five admonitions to abstinence are given in the context of the preparation for the imminent return of Christ. Nephalios as Physical Abstinence. The adjective nephalios is used three times by Paul in his description of the qualifications desired of bishops, women and older men. The first two instances occur in 1 Timothy 3:2, 11: "Now a bishop must be above reproach, the husband of one wife, temperate [nephalion], sensible [sophrona], dignified, hospitable, an apt teacher, no drunkard [me paroinon] . . . The women likewise must be serious, no slanderers, but temperate [nephalious], faithful in all things." The third instance is found in Titus 2:2, "Bid the older men be temperate [nephalious], serious, sensible [sophronas], sound in faith, in love and in steadfastness." Earlier we noticed that the adjective nephalios is used by contemporary authors such as Philo and Josephus to denote abstinence from wine. This literal interpretation is supported by the fact that in 1 Timothy 3:2 and Titus 2:2 the adjective nephalios occurs together with sophron, the first to denote physical abstinence and the second mental vigilance. The connection between the two requires a literal interpretation of nephalios, as abstinence from wine. "No Drunkard." Some argue that the literal interpretation of nephalios as abstinent is contradicted by me paroinos, rendered "no drunkard" by the RSV. Their reasoning is that Paul could not have enjoined a bishop first to be abstinent and then "no drunkard," that is, moderate in the use of wine. This apparent contradiction is resolved by recognizing by that the meaning of paroinos goes beyond "addicted to wine, drunken"54 to the complementary idea of being para "near" oinos "wine," that is, near a place where wine is consumed. "The ancient paroinos," as Lees and Burns explain, "was a man accustomed to attend drinking parties, and, as a consequence, to become intimately associated with strong drink."55 Albert Barnes, a respected New Testament commentator, explains the meaning of paroinos, saying: "The Greek word (paroinos) . . . means, properly, by wine; that is, spoken of what takes place by or over wine, as revelry, drinking-songs, etc. Then it denotes, as it does here, one who sits by wine; that is, who is in the habit of drinking it. . . . It means that one who is in the habit of drinking wine, or who is accustomed to sit with those who indulge in it, should not be admitted to the ministry. The way in which the apostle mentions the subject here would lead us fairly to suppose that he did not mean to commend its use in any sense; that he regarded it as dangerous and that he would wish the ministers of religion to avoid it altogether."56 The meaning of paroinos as "near wine," that is, near a drinking place, is supported by ancient and modern Greek lexicons. The Lexicon Graeci Testamenti Alphabeticum, published in 1660, defines paroinos in Greek and Latin as "para to oino, apud vinum," which may be translated "near or in the presence of wine."57 Liddell and Scott define the related word paroinios as "befitting a drinking party."58 Understood in this sense, me paroinos does not weaken nephalios. On the contrary, it strengthens it. What Paul is saying is that a bishop must be not only abstinent, but he must also withhold his presence and sanction from places and associations which could tempt his abstinence or that of others. This fits well with Paul's admonition in 1 Corinthians 5:11, "I wrote to you not to associate with any one who bears the name of brother if he is guilty of immorality or greed, or is an idolater, reviler, drunkard, or robber-not even to eat with such a one."59 The fundamental reason given by Paul for living abstinent and godly lives is eschatological: "For the grace of God has appeared for the salvation of all men, training us to renounce irreligion and worldly passions, and to live sober, upright, and godly lives in this world, awaiting our blessed hope, the appearing of the glory of our great God and Savior Jesus Christ, who gave himself for us to redeem us from all iniquity and to purify for himself a people of his own who are zealous for good deeds" (Titus 2:11-14). Healthful and holy living is commended in the Scripture not merely for the sake of personal health and goodness, but primarily for the sake of God's desire to dwell within us in this present life (1 Cor 3:16-17; 6:13) and to fellowship with us in the life to come. It is this hope of being ready to receive Christ, and to be received by Him on the day of His glorious appearing, that should motivate every Christian to "purify himself as he is pure" (1 John 3:3). It is to this hope that Peter appeals when he urges mental vigilance and physical abstinence in those three texts examined earlier. His admonition to "gird up your minds, be completely abstinent" is followed immediately by the exhortation "set your hope upon the grace that is coming to you at the revelation of Jesus Christ" (1 Pet 1:13). For Christians who believe in the certainty and imminence of Christ's Return, the apostolic admonitions to abstain from intoxicating beverages, assumes added significance: it represents a tangible response to God's invitation to make concrete preparation for the second coming of Christ. Conclusion. The Biblical teachings regarding the use of alcoholic beverages can be summarized in one sentence: the Scripture is consistent in teaching moderation in the use of wholesome, unfermented beverages and abstinence from the use of intoxicating fermented beverages. The practical implication of this conclusion can also be stated in one sentence: when we accept the Biblical teaching that drinking alcoholic beverages is not only physically harmful but also morally wrong, we will feel compelled not only to abstain ourselves from intoxicating substances, but also to help others to do likewise. NOTES 1. The figures are provided by the 1986 report of the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, as quoted in "Coming to Grips with Alcoholism," U.S. News & World Report (November 30, 1987): 56. 2. Ibid., p. 57. 3. "Carter Will Restore Confidence, Graham Says," Miami Herald (December 26, 1976), section A, p. 18. 4. The survey is found in Chapter 2, "The Meaning of 'Wine,'" of Wine in the Bible: A Biblical Study on the Use of Alcoholic Beverages . 5. Aristotle, Metereologica 388. b. 9-13. See also Metereologica 388. a. 34 which says: "There is more than one kind of liquid called wine [oinos] and different kinds behave differently. For new wine contains more earth than old, and so thickens most under the influence of heat, but solidifies less under the influence of cold." The reference to the thickening of new wine under the influence of heat implies that new wine was preserved unfermented by boiling it down. 6. On a similar vein in Metereologica 384. a. 4-5, Aristotle says: "For some kinds of wine [oinos], for example must [gleukos], solidify when boiled." 7. Ernest Gordon, Christ, the Apostles and Wine. An Exegetical Study (Philadelphia, 1947), p. 14. 8. The Jewish Encyclopedia, 1906 ed., s. v. "Wine," vol. 12, p. 533. 9. Cited by Louis Ginzberg, "A Response to the Question Whether Unfermented Wine May Be Used in Jewish Ceremonies," American Jewish Year Book 1923, p. 409. 10. My analysis of these texts is found in Wine in the Bible, pp. 67-69. 11. Emphasis supplied. 12. Pliny, Natural History 14, 11, 85. 13. My analysis of the Biblical teachings on the consequences of drinking intoxicating wine is found in Wine in the Bible, pp. 95-101. 14. The testimonies of ancient writers regarding the art of preserving fermented and unfermented wine are cited and analized in Chapter 4, "The Preservation of Grape Juice," of Wine in the Bible. 15. Marcus Cato, On Agriculture 23, trans. William Davis Hooper, The Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1960). 16. For documentation and discussion of each of the four methods of preserving grape juice unfermented, see Wine in the Bible, pp. 114-127. 17. Columella, On Agriculture 12, 19,1, trans. E. S. Forster and Edward H. Heffner, The Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge, Massachussetts, 1955). 18. Ibid., 12, 26, 1. 19. John Kitto, Cyclopedia of Biblical Literature, 1845 edition, s. v. "Passover," vol 2, p. 477. 20. Josephus, Jewish Wars 7, 8, 4. 21. See, for example, 'Abodah Zarah 30a, trans. I. Epstein, The Babylonian Talmud (London, 1936), pp. 148-149. 22. Pliny, Natural History 23, 24, trans. W. H. S. Jones, The Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1961). 23. Plutarch, Symposiac 8, 7. 24. See Sotah 48a; also Mishna Sotah 9, 11. 25. Cited in William Patton, Bible Wines. Laws of Fermentation (Oklahoma City, n. d.), p. 83. Emphasis supplied. 26. Herbert Preisker, "Methe, Methuo, Methuskomai," Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, ed. Gerhard Kittel (Grand Rapids, 1967), vol. 4, p. 547, emphasis supplied. 27. "It must be observed," notes Leon C. Field, "that the adjective used to describe the wine made by Christ is not agathos, good, simply, but kalos, that which is morally excellent or befitting. The term is suggestive of Theophrastus' characterization of unintoxicating wine as moral (ethikos) wine " (Oinos: A Discussion of the Bible Wine Question [New York, 1883], p. 57). 28. Alexander Balman Bruce, The Synoptic Gospels in The Expositor's Greek Testament (Grand Rapids, 1956), p. 500. A similar argument is presented by Ernest Gordon (n. 10), p. 20. 29. Columella, On Agriculture 12, 29. 30. Ernest Gordon (n.7), p. 20. 31. Ibid., p. 21. 32. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews 2, 5, 2. 33. According to J. B. Lightfoot, each of the four Passover cups contained "not less that the fourth part of a quarter of a hin, besides what water was mingled with it" (The Temple-Service and the Prospect of the Temple [London, 1833], p. 151). A hin contained twelve English pints, so that the four cups would amount to three-quarters of a pint each. 34. Louis Ginzberg (n. 9), p. 414. 35. The Jewish Encyclopedia, 1904 edition, s. v. "Jesus," vol. 5, p. 165. 36. Acts and Martyrdom of St. Matthew the Apostle, eds. Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson, The Ante-Nicene Fathers (Grand Rapids, 1978), vol. 8, pp. 532-533. 37. For references and discussion, see Wine in the Bible, pp. 168-169. 38. Information about these churches is provided by G. W. Samson, The Divine Law as to Wines (New York, 1880), pp, 205-217. See also Leon C. Field, Oinos: A Discussion of the Bible Wine Question (New York, 1883), pp. 91-94; Frederic R. Lees and Dawson Burns, The Temperance Bible-Commentary (London, 1894), pp. 280-282. 39. Rom 14:21; Eph 5:18; 1 Tim 3:8; 5:23; Titus 2:3; Rev 6:6; 14:8; 14:10; 16:19; 17:2; 18:3, 13; 19:15. 40. Ernest Gordon, (n.7), p. 20. 41. As quoted by Eusebius, Church History 2, 23, 4, eds. Philip Schaff and Henry Wace, Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church (Grand Rapids, 1971), vol. 1, p. 125 42. An investigation into the lifestyle of such Jewish Christian sects as the Ebionites, the Nazarenes, the Elkesiates and the Encratites, might provide considerable support for abstinence from fermented wine in the Apostolic Church. Some information in this regard is provided by G. W. Samson, The Divine Law as to Wines (New York, 1880), pp. 197-210. The value of his research, however, is diminished by the lack of accurate references. 43. The Interpreter's Bible (New York, 1970), vol. 11, p. 714. 44. Ernest Gordon (n. 7), p. 31. 45. Aristotle, Metereologica 387.b. 9-13. 46. Athenaeus, Banquet 2, 24. 47. Pliny, Natural History 14,18. 48. Ibid., 23, 24. 49. Ellen G. White, "The Marriage in Cana of Galilee," The Signs of the Times (September 6, 1899): 6. 50. See, for example, G. W. Lampe, A Patristic Greek Lexicon (Oxford, 1961), s. v. "Nepho;" James Donnegan, A New Greek and English Lexicon, 1847 edition, s. v. "Nepho;" Thomas S. Green, A Greek-English Lexicon to the New Testament, 1892 edition, s. v. "Nepho;" E. Robinson, A Greek and English Lexicon of the New Testament (New York, 1850), s. v. "Nepho;" G. Abbott-Smith, A Manual Greek Lexicon of the New Testament, 1937 edition, s. v. "Nepho;" Hesechius of Alexandria, Hesychii Alexandri Lexicon, 1858 edition, s. v. "Nephalios;" Demetrios C. S. Byzantios, Lexicon Epitomou tes Ellenikes Glosses, 1939 edition, s. v. "Nephalios." 51. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews 3, 12, 2, trans. William Whiston, Josephus Complete Works (Grand Rapids, 1974), p. 81. 52. Philo, De Specialibus Legibus 4, 183. 53. Adam Clarke, The New Testament of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus ---------------------------------- Christian regards Samuele Bacchiocchi, Ph. D., Professor of Theology and Church History Andrews University 4990 Appian Way Berrien Springs, MI 49103 samuele@andrews.edu